We’ve Always Been Here, Pt. 2: More Queer History through the Ages

June 29- Vitória

To really drive the point that there are more examples of specialized vocabulary for pre-colonial and colonial era queer folk and that we have always been here, Luiz Mott, a Brazilian queer historian, “popularized” the story of a woman from Benin from the arrest records of the Portuguese Inquisition in Lisbon in 1556 (Sweet, 2009, pp. 128; Elnaiem, 2021). Vitória, an enslaved individual recorded under the name Antônio when she came to Azores, had presented herself as a woman and worked in the riverbank of Lisbon as a healer where she’d “beckon men like a woman enticing them to sin” (Sweet, 2009). 

According to Sweet, witnesses attested to Vitória taking clients to an orange grove in Ponta Delgada or out on the streets at night (Sweet, 2009). In Lisbon, Vitória took part in the typical social roles attributed to enslaved women of that time. She’d been seen walking around with a ‘vessel of water’ on her head (Sweet, 2009). There were, however, times where Vitória challenged social norms and a witness claimed to have seen her ‘doff her hat and bow like a man’; while most testimonies agreed that Vitória ‘appeared to be more man than woman,’ her androgyny still proved confusing to many (Sweet, 2009).  

Unfortunately, the uproar regarding Vitória garnered the attention of the Portuguese Inquisition. Under interrogation and what was likely torture, Vitória was adamant of her womanhood and “had the anatomy to prove it”; unfortunately, the inquisitors were unconvinced and questioned how she came to acquire her anatomy (whether she’d ‘created’ it or it was the ‘result of some illness) (Sweet, 2009). Vitória stated she’d had her anatomy since birth and that there were ‘many others in her land who were born with the same orifices (buracos)’ (Sweet, 2009).

The Inquisition refused her statement and sent her for medical examination which determined that she had the ‘physical character of a man’ without the characteristics of a buraco or a ‘woman’ (Sweet, 2009). This led to her being sentenced to life imprisonment for the ‘abominable sin of sodomy’ in the king’s galleys (Sweet, 2009; Garcia, 2015). 

Vitória was, reportedly, the first of many names to appear in Inquisition records between 1550 and 1730 for the ‘crime’ of sodomy (Sweet, 2009). Sweet’s perspective is that how Vitória presented herself and how the Portuguese viewed her actions were completely different based on culture and context and that how the latter interpreted her gestures was at the ‘very core of these struggles’ (Sweet, 2009). Mistranslations, miscommunication, and misinterpretation are to be expected when different cultures come into contact but especially when one is the hostage of another. The ‘reduction’ of gender to mere sexual acts is, as Sweet said, ‘simply old wine in new bottles’. There is nothing new about the gender binary being a myth or trans, nonbinary, genderfluid, and non-conforming folk existing. The terms may be new but at its core, the concepts are older than we are.

Sources:

  • Elnaiem, M. (2021, April 29). The “Deviant” African Genders That Colonialism Condemned. JSTOR Daily, https://daily.jstor.org/the-deviant-african-genders-that-colonialism-condemned/ 
  • Garcia, F. V. (2015). Sex, Identity and Hermaphrodites in Iberia, 1500-1800. Taylor & Francis. 10.4324/9781315655147
  • Sweet, J. H., & The Past and Present Society. (2009). Mutual Misunderstandings: Gesture, Gender and Healing in the African Portuguese World. James H. Sweet. https://jameshsweet.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/sweet-mutual-misunderstandings.pdf

~Lady Sága Björnsdóttir (she/they)

June 27- Catherina Linck

Catharina Margaretha Linck (d.1721) was a Prussian woman put to death after an itinerant life of dressing as a man, chasing salvation, and then women, on the road. Linck is another entry in a long line of women from pre-modern times who dressed as a man to live and work in society on her own terms. Unlike many in that lineage, we have a surprising amount of information about her life, thanks in large part to detailed trial transcripts that share stories of her life, travels, and sexual exploits.

Initially dressing in men’s garb to protect her chastity, Linck appears to have joined the Inspirants, likely a group of Quakers, seeking out baptism and religious ecstasy, believing she was receiving visions from god. Once her supposed prophecy left her, she joined several military units, which is also when she began pursuing sexual encounters with women, at first to fit in with the other soldiers, though she admitted to feeling intense arousal from the touch of these women during her trial, going so far as to have chased one woman for miles to feel her touch again. Linck ultimately deserted each of her military units, escaping execution after getting caught by physically demonstrating that she was a woman. 

By 1717, she had settled into a new town and trade, this time working for a French stockingmaker, still dressing as a man. It was at this point that she met Catherina Margaretha Muhlhahnn. The two were engaged and then married within the year, complete with the reading of the banns and a church ceremony. According to transcripts from her trial, Linck avoided being caught as a woman even to her wife through the use of “a penis of stuffed leather with two stuffed testicles made from pig’s bladder attached to it” (Matter 91). It was ultimately her wife’s mother who outed her as a woman, seizing her fake penis and turning into the authorities as evidence against Linck.

Linck has the dubious distinction of being the last woman executed in Europe for lesbian sexual activity, beheaded in 1721, her sentence confirmed by the order of King Frederick after much debate about the appropriate punishment and whether her crimes could, in fact, de defined as sodomy (which would have seen her burned at the stake.) While no European state has officially executed a woman for her sexuality since then, it is important to remember that many people have lost their lives due to their sexuality in the centuries that followed, whether by official or tacit approval from societies across the globe.

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~Maistresse Mariette de Bretagne (she/her)

June 25- Shakespeare

“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” We all know the quote and its author, William Shakespeare, and have probably each read some of his works, whether in school or for pleasure, either in the form of his plays or poetry. We know of his sonnets to ‘The Dark Lady’ and that he wrote several to one known ‘The Fair Youth,’ but most do not realize that some of his more romantic pieces were actually to the latter, not the former. 

Shakespeare wrote a total of 154 sonnets that we are aware of today. The first 126 of these are dedicated to this ‘Fair Youth.’ While they start with the writer urging the young man to marry and father children, the sonnets continue into a friendship, followed by what is very strongly hinted at a relationship between the two. Sonnet 18, which starts with “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day,” is one such where the writer is clearly attracted to the subject, describing him as lovely both explicitly and through wordplay. In Sonnet 20, he suggests that the young man take female lovers but love only him when he says, “mine be thy love and thy love’s use their treasure.” They continue with more sexual wordplay, such as “So is the time that keeps you as my chest, / Or as the wardrobe which the robe doth hide, / To make some special instant special blest, / By new unfolding his imprisoned pride.” The term “pride” was often used in Elizabethan England as a euphemism for men’s genitalia, so these lines imply something more sexual in nature.

It was never proven who the ‘Fair Youth’ was, though there is a dedication in the sonnets to a Mr. W.H. There are many speculations about whose initials those are,  ranging from William Hughes, a young actor who played several female roles in Shakespeare’s plays, to Earl Henry Wriothesley of Southampton (his initials getting reversed) who was often a patron of the Bard. Shakespeare had previously dedicated a poem to Wriothesley about Adonis and Venus, a young man known for his beauty who is loved by Venus, the goddess of love and beauty. Another possibility was Earl William Herbert who was another patron of Shakespeare’s who refused to marry until the age of 24 and later had an affair with Mary Fitton, who herself may have been the inspiration for The Dark Lady.

Regardless of who the Fair Youth was, if they were real or completely fictional, if the love noted was platonic or romantic, scholars will continue to debate the meanings behind the works and the questions will remain. What we do know is that poetry is often written as a form of self-expression to evoke emotion in the reader. The emotions of Shakespeare’s sonnets lead many to believe that The Bard may have been counted amongst the LGBTQ+ community.

Sources:

  • Burrows,Colin, ed. The Complete Sonnets and Poems. Oxford UP, 2002, pp. 98–103. 
  • Duncan Jones, Katherine, ed. Shakespeare’ s Sonnets. Arden Shakespeare, 1997, pp. 52–69. 
  • Hubler, Edward. Shakespeare’s Songs and Poems. McGraw HIll, 1964.
  • Smith, Jessica-May. “The Mysterious Identity of the ‘Fair Youth’.” Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, 14 September 2018, https://www.shakespeare.org.uk/explore-shakespeare/blogs/mysterious-identity-fair-youth/ 

~Don Ciaran ua Meic Thire (he/him)

June 24- Babur

Babur, the first Mughal Emperor, documented his personal experiences and feelings in his memoirs, the Baburnama. This autobiographical work, celebrated in the medieval Muslim world, sheds light on Babur’s sexual inclinations towards the same sex.Among these accounts, Babur expressed his profound infatuation with a younger boy named Baburi in Urdu Bazaar. He detailed his intense emotions and the impact of Baburi’s presence on him, describing his confusion and inability to interact directly with the boy due to his overwhelming feelings: “In those leisurely days I discovered in myself a strange inclination… I am maddened and afflicted myself for a boy in the camp-bazar, his very name, Baburi, fitting in” (Baburnama, Vol. 1, p. 120). 

Until the 19th century, homosexuality was considered a natural part of life within Muslim societies. Romantic stories of homosexual love were part of educational curricula, a stance that contrasts sharply with the views held in many parts of the contemporary Western world. The notion that Babur was homosexual is supported by his candid reflections in the Baburnama, where he recounts his attraction to Baburi when he was just sixteen years old.

The debate over Babur’s sexuality often involves discussions about the accuracy of translations from Persian. However, dismissing Babur’s words as mistranslated seems to serve as a denial of the presence of homosexuals in the Muslim world. The definition of homosexuality focuses on the existence of same-sex attraction, regardless of whether these feelings are acted upon. Babur’s writings clearly indicate his sexual attraction to Baburi, affirming his inclinations regardless of any subsequent actions. While Islamic theology considers homosexuality sinful based on the Quranic story of the people of Lut, medieval Islamic legal codes (Shariat) did not prescribe specific punishments for homosexual acts, treating them under the broader category of adultery. Unlike medieval Europe, instances of punishing homosexuals were rare in Muslim societies. 

The shift from acceptance to stigmatization and criminalization of same-sex love in Muslim societies is complex. Notably, the five Muslim countries where homosexuality is not criminalized, Mali, Jordan, Indonesia, Turkey, and Albania, were never colonized by the British. In fact, the Ottoman Empire decriminalized homosexuality in 1858, two years before the British Raj’s Indian Penal Code, Section 377, criminalized it in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Babur’s candid reflections in the Baburnama offer a nuanced perspective on historical attitudes towards homosexuality in Muslim societies. His experiences highlight a period when same-sex attraction was openly acknowledged, in stark contrast to later stigmatization influenced by colonial legal frameworks. Understanding this historical context is crucial in recognizing the diverse and evolving attitudes towards sexuality across different cultures and eras.

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~Lady Aisha bint Allan (they/them)

June 23- King Edward II

Edward of Caernarfon, later named King Edward II, was born April 25, 1284 in Caernarfon Castle in North Wales. It is theorized that the location of his birth was an attempt by his father, King Edward I, to solidify royal authority in the region as he had only conquered the area the year before. Edward II was his father’s fourth son, his brothers John and Henry having died before he was born, and his brother Alphonso dying only four months after Edward was born. 

As a young man, Edward’s most notable ‘favorite’ was Piers Gaveston. Gaveston begins to appear in the household accounts of the Prince in 1300. He was the son of one of the Knights of the household and the two quickly became close. Gaveston was exiled in 1307 after a falling out between the Prince and King. Before he left for France, Edward lavished him with gifts, including five horses, swans, and herons. One chronicler of the time wrote:

“upon looking on him [Gaveston] the son of the king immediately felt such love for him that he entered into a covenant of constancy, and bound himself with him before all other mortals with a bond of indissoluble love, firmly drawn up and fastened with a knot.”

Edward was wed to Isabella of France in an attempt to solidify relations between France and England. He assumed the throne upon his father’s death July 7, 1307, and immediately invited Gaveston back to England, granting him the Earldom of Cornwall as  his first charter as King. 

In 1311, a baronial committee made of 21 members drafted “Ordinances,” where the barons demanded Gaveston be banished and that a restriction be imposed upon the powers of the King in relation to finances and powers of appointment. King Edward II pretended to cave to the Ordinances. Gaveston was sent out of the country, but returned soon after. Upon his return Gaveston was bestowed “disposition and control of all the royal treasure, jewels, and precious stones.” In retaliation, the barons beheaded Gaveston on June 10, 1312. The inventory of items that were found in his home included various goods, jewels, warhorses, and various silver items, totaling about $4,457,543.09 in today’s money. This collection of goods far exceeded the means that Gaveston would have had. The prevailing theory is that the collection was made of gifts from Edward.

In the 11 years following Gaveston’s execution, Edward lost the battle with Scotland and was put at the mercy of barons and his cousin, Thomas of Lancaster. Thomas was not capable of maintaining control of the group. In 1318, a more moderate group, led by Aymer de Valence, acted as arbitrators between Thomas and Edward.

Edward found two new favorites during this time, Hugh le Despenser and his son (also named Hugh le Despenser). Edward supported the son’s territorial ambitions in Wales, who was appointed Chamberlain by parliament in 1318 and was thus able to control who saw the King and when. By 1320, he refused to allow anyone to see the king without him or his father present. He also began to answer petitions without consulting the King. The King supported Despenser’s claim to the Marcher lord’s Gower lands, even supporting his assertion that not giving the lands to him as the Chamberlain was tantamount to treason. The blatant abuse of station and disregard for law led to the Despensers fleeing to France in 1321. Edward took up arms on their behalf, defeating many of their enemies. In 1322 he captured  and executed his cousin Thomas, which ended the baronial control imposed by the Ordinances. This also enabled him to make the older Despenser Earl of Winchester.

Edward’s wife Isabella resented the Despensers. The final straw for Isabella seems to have been when Edward began permanently living with Despenser the Younger in 1322 after removing her children from her care. She became the mistress of Roger Mortimer, an exiled baronial opponent of Edward who aligned with Thomas of Lancaster, while on a diplomatic mission to Paris in 1325. In September 1326, Isabella and Mortimer invaded England with the backing of France. Hugh Despenser the Younger was hanged, drawn and quartered upon his capture in South Wales in November of 1326. Edward II was captured and deposed in favor of his son, Edward III, and imprisoned immediately after. His death was recorded in September 1327, though some historians suggested that Edward’s death was staged and that he probably survived until 1330. Whatever the truth of his death was, his reign saw the start of parliamentary institutions that most agree have benefitted England in the long term.

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~Lady Bak Nabiya (she/her)

June 22- Marie Maitland

Marie Maitland (d. 1596) was one of four daughters of Sir Richard Maitland, a Scottish statesman and influential lawyer and judge with ties to the Scottish crown. In addition to political connections, the Maitland family also maintained a reputation for their literary prowess, and Sir Richard is credited with compiling one of the most important collections of Scottish poetry of the era.

Marie could not help but be influenced by this world in which she found herself, even given the stifling and sexist nature of Scottish society at the time. Researcher Ashley Douglas describes it as a time where “suffocating social and religious orthodoxy reigned supreme.” Despite this, Marie Maitland managed to craft a passionate poem of female love, now referred to as Poem 49, slipping it into a family manuscript, The Maitland Quarto, making it one of the earliest known examples of female homoerotic poetry from Renaissance Europe.

Poem 49 is a work in nine stanzas, written in a woman’s voice, praising the superior constancy of women’s relationships. Marie plays on the Renaissance poetic tradition used by many male poets when they spoke about the power of male friendship, likening the strength of her relationship to those of famous figures from history and mythology. It moves well beyond praise of her beloved, though; the sixth stanza becomes overtly sexual in its vocabulary choices, building to the last two stanzas where the poet longs to take the semblance of a man so that she can marry and consummate her relationship with her beloved. The poet ultimately acknowledges the limitations of their relationship, marriage not being an option available to them, but instead devoting themselves fully to the most perfect and constant friendship.

Marie married in 1586, as would have been expected of a woman of her station. While we cannot say for certain whether Marie would have viewed herself using our modern terms of “lesbian” or “bisexual,” nor do we have proof that she had any physical relationship with another woman, she did leave behind striking textual evidence that she held strong romantic feelings for women. This is an especially important reminder about the long-standing existence of queer people for a country with a history of condemnation and criminalization. While Scotland finally decriminalized same-sex relations between men in 1981, and legalized same-sex marriage in 2014, the country still has its struggles with acceptance.

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~Maistresse Mariette de Bretagne (she/her)

June 21- Pre-Colonial Africa’s Queer Traditions

There are 55 different countries in Africa, all composed of their own nations and ethnic groups, languages, dialects, and customs. So why do we have such restricted access to information from the pre-colonial era? It’s not because Africa as a whole was “underdeveloped” or didn’t possess writing systems or support record keeping. Rather, it was due to the violence of colonization and the brutality of weaponized religion. This line of thinking goes against the views of many African (and world) leaders who label homosexuality of any kind as “unAfrican,” “nonindigenous,” and “unnatural foreign import” of Western ideals and seek to scrub their queer populations from history (Muiga, 2019; Kimuhu, 2023; M’Baye, 2013, pp. 110). 

While heterosexuality was the more common practice, many countries didn’t view gender as a rigid binary dependent on anatomy as we do in modernity but rather something far more fluid and, often, spiritual (Buckle, 2020). Sexuality in pre-colonial Africa was just as complex as the many societies on the continent (Kimuhu, 2023). According to Murray and Roscoe in Boy-Wives and Female Husbands, many of those societies had ‘relaxed attitudes’ about different gender identities and sexual expression (Murray & Roscoe, 2001). For instance, pre-colonial West Africa had over 40 societies where women could marry one another or engage in polyandry as long as they could afford the dowry or any other stipulations placed on the marriage(s) (Tamale, 2013, pp. 35; Elnaiem, 2021).

The very fact that there are words to describe different queer folk should be a clear indicator of existence. Faculty dean Sylvia Tamale of Makerere University mentions the mudoko dako or ‘effeminate males’ of the Langi of northern Uganda who were able to marry men and move through society as women; even Angola and Namibia had an entirely separate caste specifically for their male diviners and healers known throughout the region as zvibanda, chibados, quimbanda, gangas, jinbandaa, and kibambaa (Tamale, 2013, pp. 35; Sweet, 2009, pp. 131; Driberg, 1923). According to Captain Antônio de Oliveira Cadornega in his História geral das guerras Angolanas (General History of the Angolan Wars, 1681), Angola’s jinbandaa or quimbanda were “adroit sorcerers and are well respected and the people are careful not to offend them in any manner” (Mott, 2016).

The inkotshane of the Shangaan-Tsonga of South Africa, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe and the Senegalese Wolof gor-digen have literal translations that don’t do the contextualized meanings justice but best translate to ‘male-wife’ and ‘man-woman,’ respectively; and the term motsoalle in the Basotho nation of Lesotho is used to describe lesbian relationships to this day (Tamale, 2013, pp. 35). Among the Maale of Southern Ethiopia, there are records of a gender identity called ashtime. This minority of folk dressed as women, performed tasks assigned to that gender role, and even had relationships with men (Murray & Roscoe, 2001; Donham, 1994). 

With such a variety of ethnic groups, nations, and kingdoms this large, one would think there would be enough notable figures to share dozens of stories, but many of their stories have been redacted from history due to Western Imperialism. While difficult, the ability to look at pre-colonial Africa’s queer history without homogenizing the many nations and ethnic groups within the continent or trying to retroactively fit them into modern narratives or categories is paramount to understanding the complexities of those that came before. Fortunately, through the preservation efforts of activists and the invention of the internet, information is now within reach for anyone with a connection. Despite all of the untold horror and violence, systematic erasure and criminalization due to imported homophobia, Africa’s queer history can be remembered as an act of rebellion and of survival.

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~Lady Sága Björnsdóttir (she/they)

June 20- Richard Puller von Hohenburg

Richard Puller von Hohenburg was a 15th-century Alsatian and Swiss nobleman and knight. He was the only son to the successful noble Konrad von Hohenburg. 

He lived in Strasbourg in Alsace where he married.

In 1463, the Swiss noble Wirich von Berstett captured Ludwig Fischer, one of Puller’s servants, after he had been seen dressed in lavish clothes and with more money than his occupation could afford him. In early modern Europe, these things were often synonymous with someone that is being paid for improper sexual activities. After being tortured, Fischer confessed that Puller had romantically pursued him. Puller was then arrested and stripped of his fiefs; however, he was not put on trial, and was released shortly after. 

In 1474, he was once again accused of sodomy. In medieval and early modern Europe, ‘sodomy’ could refer to any sexual contact that intentionally resulted in non- procreative ejaculation, including but not limited to contact between men. He once again evaded any major consequences by use of his social status. He procured, or perhaps forged, letters of recommendation from far-off authorities, playing the local Alsatian nobles against the secular imperial powers of the Holy Roman Empire. 

By 1476, Puller was released upon the following set of conditions: he would have to confess his misdeeds, give up his properties, and submit to monastic imprisonment. Puller was quickly stripped of his possessions, but fled from Alsace before beginning a monastic life. His plan was to later reclaim the possessions he had lost. He turned to the Old Swiss Confederacy for help, but his property claims created some conflict between the Confederacy and the city of Strasbourg, which was then complicated by city officials discovering  a homosexual relationship between Puller and his servant, Anton Mätzler, in 1482. Mätzler was also seen in lavish clothing and other forms of prosperity beyond what his means would provide.  

This time, Puller was sentenced to be burned at the stake alongside Mätzler in the market square of Zurich. On 24 September 1482, a large crowd had gathered to see  the execution. Puller was asked to repeat his confession, but he refused and continued the claim that the accusation of sodomy was only a cover for the Zürich officials who wished to seize his land and fortune. A manuscript illustration exists of the burning of Puller and his servant from The Official Chronicle of Bern, but the depiction of the execution happening before the city walls is inaccurate, as Puller was actually burned in Zurich’s market square. 

Puller died at the age of 28, and with his death, the von Hohenburg family ceased to exist.

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~Tove Elwyn (they/them)

June 19- Sappho

Sappho of Lesbos was a Greek poet born around 630 BCE to an aristocratic family. Many of her works have been lost to time, but the surviving portions and references by her contemporaries, such as Plato and Aristotle, provide us with more context about her life. Plato referred to her as “the Tenth Muse,” which gives credit to her level of influence and popularity during her time. It is known that she learned the lyre and composed songs, had three brothers (two of whom were referenced in her poetry) and was famous enough to have coins, statues, and ceramics made in her honor. Sappho had many female companions ranging from friends and students to lovers whose names were documented in her poetry. 

She is rumored to have run a school dedicated to Aphrodite. It’s recorded that the main focus of this thiasos (a group of worshipers of a god or goddess) was “learning grace and elegance for seduction and love.” Her dedication to the goddess appears in her poetry through one of her surviving fragments. In her “Ode to Aphrodite,” consisting of 7 sapphic stanzas, Sappho details a story of unrequited love from a woman in which she is asking Aphrodite to help her woo her love.

Another poem used as a testament to her sexuality is Fragment 31. This fragment tells the story of the narrator, Sappho, longing for the attention of a woman who is in conversation with a man. She describes her physical reaction to her envy. The ability of Sappho to put her passion into words is one of the key elements to her surviving works.

There are many legends surrounding Sappho and her life beyond her poetry. It’s theorized that she married a wealthy man and birthed a daughter. It’s also theorized that she threw herself off of a cliff due to her unrequited love from a sailor. While the theories have focused around men, there is no denying her love and longing for women based in her poetry.

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~Lady Bak Nabiya (she/her)

June 18- Khajuraho Sculptures

If you travel through the countryside of Northern India, you would be hard pressed to find more beautiful displays of architecture and sculpture than the temples and monuments that make up Khajuraho. From a distance they may look like any other sacred worship space, yet upon closer inspection the detail and breadth of the sculptures, both provocative and mundane, is enough to take one’s breath away.  

An astounding 85 temples were originally built by Chandela rulers between 900 and 1300 CE, and despite the ravishment of time and civilizations, 20 of these beautifully carved temples have survived to provide us with a unique and detailed glimpse into the culture and minds of the artisans over 7 centuries later. These temples are a perfect example of Nagara or Northern style temples, built and carved of sandstone. Each temple is set above the landscape by an ornate terraced platform, upon which the main structure of the temple stands. The inner sanctum is topped by a tower, and on top of that, the main spire rises into the sky, surrounded by a series of smaller spires, designed to symbolize Mount Kailasa, the dwelling place of the Gods. 

Words cannot do justice to the magnificence of the architecture or the stunning nature of the carvings. Some examples of the scenes depicted include anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphic depictions of Hindu deities and scenes from Hindu mythology, depictions of acts of worship, domestic scenes of teachers and disciples, dancers and musicians, and amorous couples entwined in intimate acts. These intimate depictions include imagery of homosexual pairings, highlighting both male and female couples.

The depictions of so many erotic and intimate sculptures could have been a way of encouraging fertility sects and deities, or served as a visual accompaniment to the Indian teachings of sensuality in the Kamasutra, however the existence of homosexual sculptures counter anti-queer narratives that same-sex love is unnatural or didn’t exist in India before Western introduction.

Homosexuality and queerness have been controversial points in recent Indian history, but with the overturning of anti-gay laws in India in 2018, laws that had been in place since they were introduced by the British colonizers in 1861, the queer community India has been trying to express their existence. This existence has clearly always been there, depicted in its historical art and religious temples, and perhaps someday soon India’s acceptance of its queer population will increase to the embrace it had centuries ago. Truly the best part of artistic expression is when the works before us reflect the beauty and diversity of the lives surrounding it.

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~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 17- King Kristina of Sweden

Kristina was born in 1626, heir to King Gustavus Adolphus. When the birth was announced, the nurses initially mistook Kristina for a boy due to the amount of body hair and their strong, hoarse voice when they cried. King Gustavus, having tried unsuccessfully for a male heir for a number of years, stated “She’ll be clever, she has made fools of us all!” and decided to raise Kristina as a prince. 

In 1632, King Gustavus died on the battlefield fighting in the Thirty Years’ War, making Kristina the king-elect at the age of six. They were afforded the education of a royal male and studied theology, philosophy, politics, and the art of war. They learned German, Dutch, Danish, French, Italian, Arabic, and Hebrew. Their thirst for knowledge and their love of the arts was voracious. Kristina was officially crowned as King of Sweden in 1650. During their reign and with the end of the Thirty Years War, they transitioned the country out of  conflict and into a focus on education. They established the first country-wide school ordinance and founded Sweden’s first newspaper, which is still running today. Kristina had an intense aversion to marriage and childbirth. Because of their refusal to marry and produce an heir, and the growing physical toll that reigning was having on their health, Kristina named their cousin Charles X Gustav as their successor and abdicated the throne to him. 

Kristina has been speculated by historians to have been transgender or on the gender nonconforming spectrum. Throughout their life, they preferred to wear attire that would be worn by men. They expressed discomfort with traditionally feminine interests and had hobbies that were traditionally practiced by men, such as fencing, horse riding, and bear hunting. It was said that Kristina “walked like a man, sat and rode like a man, and could eat and swear like the roughest soldier.” Kristina had a deep, masculine voice and styled their hair like that of a young man. Despite this, it is not known for sure how Kristina actually identified themselves or how they would have identified in the modern age. 

Kristina’s sexuality has also been of some debate. They had a passionate relationship with one of their handmaids, Ebba Sparre. In Kristina’s memoir, they said that Ebba was the one love of their life. Once this relationship ended, Kristina did not have any other public romances. It is speculated that given Kristina’s emphatically voiced aversion to marriage and pregnancy, they could fall on the asexual or demisexual spectrums. While some identify Kristina as a lesbian, others have questioned if they were bisexual due to their close and amorous friendship with Cardinal Azzolino. The friendship was so close that the Pope had Cardinal Azzolino sent to Romania as punishment for maintaining it.  This is mostly speculation however, because aside from their relationship with Ebba, Kristina kept most of her romantic life private.

Kristina was one of the most influential figures of their time. Kristina converted to Catholicism and relocated to Rome. Their palace in Rome contained the greatest collection of Venetian paintings ever assembled. They founded The Arcadia Academy for philosophy and literature which is still in existence. They also helped to start the first public opera house in Rome. Regardless of how Kristina would have identified their gender and sexual identity, their impact on the arts and culture had an impressive impact, lasting even to today.

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~Countess Indrakshi Aani Aravinda (she/her)

June 16- Emperor Hadrian

Publius Aelius Hadrianus, better known to history as Emperor Hadrian, was one of the five “Good Emperors of Rome,” monarchs who are remembered for ruling justly. He is remembered for both his massive infrastructure projects throughout the Roman Empire and his love affair with a Bythynian young man named Antinous, who after his tragic death, was deified by Hadrian resulting in the cult of Antinous.

Hadrian was the force behind Hadrian’s Wall in Northern Britain, a 73 mile long defensive creation designed to protect the northernmost territory of the Roman Empire from attacks by the Picts. East of the River Irthing the wall was made of stone, measuring just under 10 feet wide and 16-20 feet high, while west of the river it was constructed of stone and turf and measured 20 feet wide by 11 feet high, stretching out across the landscape of Britain. The largest Roman archaeological feature in Britain has survived the weathering of milenia and can be visited still today, and has been featured in multiple films including King Arthur (2004), Centurion (2010) and The Eagle (2011). 

Besides his famed wall, Hadrian also raised cities and monuments, improved roads throughout the empire, and increased the integrity of infrastructure in Egypt, Asia Minor, North Africa, Greece, and throughout the Balkan Peninsula. He was part of rebuilding the Pantheon after its destruction and adding an annex to Trajan’s Forum known as the Athenaeum. While no longer believed to be the sole architect on any singular project, Hadrian provided architectural plans, oversight, and funding for many projects, including a variety of Roman baths and villas.

Hadrian was also a lover of Greek literature and Egyptian mysticism and magic. He wrote poetry and several complete compositions of his have survived, most famously his deathbed poem which historians believe was penned as he lay dying (translations can be found in the links below). It is also said that Hadrian wrote erotic poetry of his male lover, Antinous.

Hadrian had a multi-year, open love affair with Antinous despite being in a political marriage to Sabina, the great niece of his predecessor Emperor Trajan. The two men would become near constant companions for the next several years. Hadrian arranged for Antinous to be sent to a prestigious boarding school for young men to be trained in the ways of courtly life, following which Antinous and Hadrian were inseparable and traveled together for years. Tragedy struck as Antinous drowned while sailing the Nile to celebrate the Festival of Osiris, leaving Hadrian despondent and heart broken. Emperor Hadrian had Antinous deified almost immediately, without waiting for the approval of the Senate, and had the city of Antinoopolis built in his honor. He commissioned statues throughout the empire celebrating Antinous’ beauty, and as part of the deifying, Hadrian also had Antinous erected to godhood, an honor that was unprecedented for those who were not members of the imperial family. 

The cult of Antinous proved rather popular, and more images of Antinous survive than any other Roman figure besides Emperor Julius Caesar Augustus and Emperor Hadrian himself. Such a heartfelt and emotional response demonstrates the true love that Hadrian felt for his paramour and greatest companion, a sweet reminder that love is love and it has always existed, regardless of the labels placed upon it.

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~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 14- Xica Manicongo

Xica Manicongo (pronounced She-ka Mah-knee-congo) was a queer enslaved person brought to Salvador, Bahia, the epicenter of the Portuguese colonies in the northeast of Brazil in the 16th century. Many in Brazil consider her to be the nation’s first non-indigenous trans person, or at least some form of cross-dressing gender non-conforming individual. While forced to present as a man either due to their given enslaved name or to hide themselves for their safety, Xica was forced to be called Francisco, commonly nicknamed Xico in northeastern Brazil. Her true name is lost in the accounting books that kept her from her freedom. 

Xica was a shoemaker in Cidade Baixa who refused to wear the masculine clothing restricted to her perceived gender assigned at birth and refused to behave “like a man.” Because of this, the Inquisition accused her of sodomy, witchcraft, and heresy by the Tribunal of the Holy Office. She was condemned to a public execution in the square for living as their true self. Some reports said she relinquished her femininity to remain safe, others that she was burned at the stake, but it is difficult to find a decisive answer. 

Today, Xica is a touchstone in the ongoing fight for LGBTQIA+ freedom in Brazil. So much so that at the last Carnival, in February 2024, one of the Samba schools paid homage to Xica as a way to reflect on the current struggles of the Brazilian queer community and the erasure in the history of enslaved and queer persons.

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~Lady Luiza Vincente (she/they)

June 13- King James I

King James I (1566-1625) is a well known figure in European history, first coming to power as King of Scotland, from 1567-1625, and then also King of England, from 1603-1625. A fairly successful ruler in Scotland, he played Protestant and Roman Catholic factions against one another while retaining his Presbyterian faith, becoming the head of the Scottish Presbyterian church in 1584. 

When Queen Elizabeth I passed and James succeeded her on the English throne, his experience in ruling Scotland did little to aid him. He was considered ineffective in his dealings with England’s Parliament, and while he pulled troops out of the Spanish war he inherited, tensions never fully evaporated between the two countries, leaving James caught between his English countrymen and his endearment to Spain, specifically Spain’s ambassador, Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Count of Gondomar.

While a fairly tolerant man in terms of Christian religious faiths, and having worked with multiple sects while King of Scotland, religious tension still plagued his reign. The Gunpowder Plot, orchestrated by Roman Catholic conspirators, sought the destruction of the Houses of Parliament, which led to strict sanctions and penalties for Roman Catholics in England. Most famously, James greenlit a project from a group of religious leaders in 1604, to replace the Roman Catholic English translations of the Bible, as they were believed to be corrupt and unanswerable to the truth of the original. James authorized this new translation of the Bible, which became known as the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible, published in 1611. King James was also known for other works of literature including The True Lawe of Free Monarchies, Basilikon Doron, and is credited with a number of political works and poems.

In 1589, James was wed to Anne of Denmark, the daughter of Frederick II of Denmark. The relationship appeared to flourish, and the couple produced 9 children. She was not to be his only lover though, as King James I is also suspected of having affairs with a number of men. Chief among them was George Villiers, the Earl of Buckingham, who the King referred to as “my sweet child and wife,” and who was later raised to Duke, an honor which had not occurred in over a century and was typically reserved for members of the royal family. A younger James also wrote a rather suggestive poem about Esmé Stuart in which he describes a resting phoenix between the thighs of the Stuart. Rumors abound regarding who else may have shared the King’s bed, as many handsome young nobles were lavished and doted on as part of James’ favorites, much to the ire of those less favored within his court.

At the time of King James’ rule, the modern labels of bisexuality and queerness weren’t used as they are today, so it is no surprise that he was not identified as a queer individual until a more recent look into his writings and the historical depictions of the time. Instead, societal and religious pressure around him caused him to condemn sodomy as an unforgivable crime. Perhaps he didn’t think such rulings applied to him as the monarch, perhaps he maintained some form of cognitive dissociation, or perhaps he was simply a hypocrite and preached one thing while actively abandoning those ideals in his personal life. Regardless of the reason, it is a shame that the man was unable to pursue those in life he may have cared about with openness and acceptance, a struggle many queer people can still relate to in the current age. 

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~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 12- Al-Hakam II

Despite modern assumptions, homosexuality and religion haven’t always been at such odds. In fact, in 961 in the Moorish empire of Cordoba, in what is now modern day Spain, an openly gay Islamic man was appointed as ruler. After Al-Hakam II was made Caliph, he kept a male harem much the same way as his father before him, Abd-al-Rahman III, had, though his father’s harem consisted of both men and women. 

Beyond being an openly gay man, al-Hakam is credited with bringing an incredible amount of books back to the lIbraries of Cordoba, though his dream was to convert as many books from their original Greek and Latin into his own native tongue of Arabic. In order to bring this dream to fruition, he formed a joint team of Arab Muslims, Jews, and Iberian Mozarab Christians to facilitate this incredible feat, and by the middle of the tenth century, most existing Greek and Hellenic works had been translated, preserving cultural scientific and literary works for future generations. It is estimated that the library reached more than 400,000 volumes during his tenure, and during his reign the city was a haven for researchers, translators, scholars, and philosophers, whose visitation and relocation turned it into an intellectual’s paradise. 

At a time when other parts of Europe were mostly illiterate, Cordoba had over 800 public schools and Caliph al-Hakam II worked ardently to promote education and the pursuit of knowledge, going as far as offered incentives to those researchers and students in his kingdom. Writers, researchers and translators were exempt from conscription or participation in wars and conquests, and given rewards and generous gifts in return for their work.

Bookish pursuits aside, an unavoidable element of ruling is the responsibility to produce an heir, a task even a gay Caliph couldn’t avoid. It is said that to ensure al-Hakam II’s lineage, a female concubine was dressed in boys clothes and given the masculine moniker Jafar in order to coax an heir from the ruling scholar. The technique worked and a son was born. He was named Hisham II, succeeded his father at the age of 10, and also ended up keeping a male harem. 

Al-Hakam’s devotion to education and promotion of learning, philosophy, and the sciences turned Cordoba into the hub of the intellectual world. Arabic became the language of the learned, and students and researchers from all over Europe traveled to Cordoba to benefit from the myriad of opportunities that al-Hakam II had provided. This atmosphere of cooperation and collaboration between Arabs, Jews, and Christians is proof that embracing diversity and people of all backgrounds builds a better, more educated world for us all, a lesson all of us would do well to remember in our modern lives.

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~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 11- Third Genders and Two-Spirit Persons

The term Two-Spirit is a relatively modern pan-Indian term used to describe people who fulfill a third-gender role within Native American and Native Alaskan communities. This term was coined as a way of describing someone (in English) who may be male, female or intersex and who combines the gendered activities of both men and women, while also acknowledging their own unique traits and status. In tribes where two-spirit men and women are referred to with the same term, they constitute a third gender; if the tribe refers to two-spirit men and women with different terms, they become distinct third and fourth genders.

Male and female two-spirit people were often described based on their achievements and preference in the work of the “opposite” sex or within their own unique roles. This includes craftwork such as basket weaving, pottery making and leatherworking as well as engaging in activities of hunting, warfare and leadership. A variety of other identifiers distinguished two-spirit persons, including dress, lifestyle, temperament and social roles. Two-spirit individuals were widely believed to be linked to supernatural phenomena including spiritual intervention in the form of visions, dreams and other means of communication sanctioned within tribal mythology. In many tribes, two-spirit people filled spiritual and religious roles as healers, shamans and ceremonial leaders. Two-spirit people typically formed relationships (sexual and emotional) with non-two-spirit members of their own sex within their community; among some tribes, including the Lakota, Mohave, Crow, and Cheyenne, two-spirit people were believed to be “lucky in love” and capable of bestowing this amorous luck onto others.

Most native communities have terms in their own language for other-gendered persons as well as the details of roles and responsibilities these individuals would fulfill. With over 500 surviving Native American cultures, there is a myriad of attitudes about sex, gender and social roles as is to be expected from such a diverse community, and not all cultures welcome or use a pan-Indian umbrella term such as two-spirit to replace the terms already used in their culture. 

While the roles of third or other-gendered persons vary from tribe to tribe, it is clear that gender was certainly more fluid among Native American society when compared with the norms of European colonizers. The effects of these differences resulted in extreme marginalization of Indigenous peoples both in terms of racial/ethnic identity as well as gender and sexual expression. Christian European colonizers used Indigenous same-sex relationships and gender variance as ways to condemn and further dehumanize Native American people in the push to invade and displace them from their lands. 

Despite these persecutions and systemic injustices, the strength of Indigenous voices continues to be heard, and many of the traditions and cultural practices are being preserved by incredible caretakers. Since the 1990’s, national gatherings of two-spirit people have been held, and regional gatherings are held throughout many parts of the country. For more information please visit www.ihs.gov/lgbt.

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~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 10- Leonardo da Vinci

Erasure is a concept anyone familiar with history should be aware of. “History is written by the victors” goes the cliché, articulating that every narrative can be as fickle as the moods of those retelling the tale. So it is for one of the great artists of the 16th century, a man whose works cause people to stand in line for hours simply to get a glimpse of them. Leonardo da Vinci is often praised as a Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, military engineer, draftsman and mentor, but what time has tried to erase, what has been researched and found, is that Leonardo da Vinci was also a queer man. The artist credited with painting noted works like The Last Supper and the Mona-Lisa is also responsible for creating St. John the Baptist and Angel Incarnato, both works thought to depict his muse and lover, with the latter sporting a full erection. 

The man said to be da Vinci’s lover was Gian Giacomo Caprotti, nicknamed ‘Salai,’ meaning ‘little devil,’ in response to Gian’s precocious habit of stealing da Vinci’s things and playing pranks. While historians have debated da Vinci’s sexual identity in the past, the general consensus today is that he was engaged romantically with both Salai, and later a young man named Francesco Melzi, both of whom were apprenticed under da Vinci. Indeed, these relations lasted for long periods, Salai staying with da Vinci for 25 years, departing just before the artist’s passing, while Melzi was there with the dying artist through until the end. Both of these young men were benefactors in da Vinci’s will, with Salai being gifted an estate outside Milan, and Melzi listed as the heir to the remainder of Leonardo’s artistic and scientific estate. 

This attitude of permissive homosexuality amongst men is well documented in 15th century Florence. Despite the fact that sodomy was considered illegal, it appears to have been treated with an air of acceptance, given only about 20 percent of those accused of sodomy were actually convicted and fewer still jailed. The list of renaissance men who had carnal or romantic relationships with members of the same sex is a long one and contains other famous names such as Michelangelo, who wrote love poems to Tommaso Cavelieri, a young nobleman, and Machiavelli, who had an ongoing affair with a sex worker named Riccio.

Sadly, if you walk the museum-converted halls of Château du Clos Lucé, where Leonardo da Vinci spent his last years, you will find few references to the artist’s two long term companions. It is quite unfortunate that the sands of time, whether malicious or not, seem to have robbed these men of their contribution to the artistic workings of such a talented artist. Perhaps additional historical research will bring about a karmic kindness and reunite the history of these famous men and their muses, so that they too may be given the recognition they deserve.

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~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 9- Rolandina Ronchaia

Rolandina Ronchaia lived in the Rialto of Venice during the 14th century. She was considered male at birth, but had a feminine face, voice, gestures, with pronounced breasts. She married a woman early in life, but never had sexual intercourse with her, nor any other woman, because of a lack of sexual appetite and an inability to achieve an erection. Failure to gain an erection was grounds for a divorce in early modern Italy, and after nearly ten years, Rolandina’s wife left the marriage.

After the divorce, Rolandina moved to Padua to live with a mason and it was there that she began to sleep with men as a woman, hiding her penis during intercourse. Rolandina then moved back to Venice, and with her voice, gestures and outward appearance being so feminine, others also believed she was a woman. This is when she began using the name Rolandina. 

Rolandina frequented brothels and was asked to have sex with many men in Venice, all thinking Rolandina to be a woman. She deceived them by taking hold of the penis of the man while they were on top of her and inserting it into her rear. She lived successfully as a woman and supported herself through sex work for more than seven years.

In early 1354, Ronchaia was apprehended on the streets of the Venetian Rialto by the Lords of the Night, the magistrates in the Republic of Venice that operated in special courts, during a routine sweep against moral crimes. The Lords of the Night’s interest in Ronchaia’s allegedly criminal activities was not limited to prostitution but moreso for being a man dressed in women’s clothing for the purpose of sexually deceiving men. When interrogated, the questioning centered around Rolandina’s genitalia and motivations. She was asked:

“If anyone committing that act with him saw [his] penis, answered no. 

Asked whether [his] own penis became erect while [he] was with those men, answered no. 

Asked why [he] committed that sin, [he] answered, “to bring in some money.”

The misgendering in that transcript of the trial is faithful to the original text, and unsurprising given the time and circumstances. Rolandina was then tortured and interrogated at the Lords’ command to better speak the truth. Even after being whipped, she would give the same answers. As a result, on March 28 1355, Rolandina was sentenced to be burned until death.

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~Tove Elwyn (they/them)

June 8- Gender Fluidity in the Viking Age

Much social discourse has transpired over the years about what makes someone masculine or feminine. Many societies purport to know best and yet the more we review history the more obvious it becomes that structures around gender are culture-specific social constructions, which are rarely binary and can be quite fluid.

The study of Nordic cultures is no stranger to misinterpreted assumptions. It was once theorized that, culturally, men and women were so fundamentally different that they were restricted to fixed domains.In Icelandic the term innanstokks means “within the household,” and utanstokks means “outdoor activities,” not only on the property, like farming, but also trade, travel, sailing and fighting. This ideal is hard to imagine being strictly applied, given its heavy binary implication, and a more nuanced approach to gender and its assumed roles should be considered.

In one of the most stereotypical displays, cooking was once considered to be a part of the woman’s domain. This trope persists today, despite having only a few references in written media to support such a claim, and despite archeological evidence in the form of grave goods showing that kitchen equipment is commonly featured in both male and female graves. Corroborating this theory there are several references in written sources of men engaging in food preparation1. This leads to several examples of a much more non-gendered society, where expression was of the individual and duties were designated based on ableness of body and not gendered roles.

Flexing gender stereotypes in Nordic culture in the opposite direction, Seid, or the practice of magic, was considered a strongly female art form, and considered a near solely feminine activity. For a male practitioner to be caught was to be accused of ergi meaning unmanliness, softness or cowardice, it was considered a terrible insult for a man. Yet Odin, the Norse God of War was considered by many to be a great practitioner of seid, once again subverting the narrative of strictly enforced gender binaries.

This would not be the only time that Odin engaged in gender fluid behavior, though. In the mythos he would go on to practice seid in order to travel to the kingdom of the dead and bring back knowledge in the form of runes. In one myth he would don women’s clothing to beget a son, in order to avenge Balder. Odin is not the only male God we have written reference for partaking in cross dressing. Throughout Þrymskviða (The Lay of Thrym) we find Thor being dressed by Heimdal in the finest of bridal garb, in order to trick a giant into thinking they are the Goddess Freyja, and it is mentioned that he is accompanied by Loki, dressed as his bridesmaid. The text translates as such with Heimdal speaking:

“Let’s dress Thor in a bridal head-dress,
 let him wear the great necklace of the Brisings”
 “Let keys jingle about him
 and let women’s clothes fall down to his knees,
 and on his breasts lets display jewels,
 and we’ll arrange a head dress suitably on his head.”2

So while cross dressing or magic using may not have been considered standard behaviors for men, they were, at the same time, not so far removed from the realm of possibility that depictions and stories of such behavior haven’t survived to our modern age.

Further archeological research has provided additional goods in which we find many fluid gender role elements supported by pictorial evidence. Lund University Senior Lecturer, Ing-Marie Back Danielsson, terms many of the gold foil bracteates she has examined as depicting “loving couples” due to uncertain gender determination and has called into question the tendency to affix known categories, i.e. gender, to historical aspects which does not fit into such parameters.3 Other examples clearly show same-sex couples engaging which brings additional queer interpretations to these archeological finds.

Also calling into question assumed gender norms are the depictions on the Gotlandic picture stones. Images that show women carrying drinking horns and greeting warriors, generally interpreted as being depictions of arrival scenes from Valhalla, with at least one such stone depicting a woman as the arriving person.4 Lastly the seated figure, often interpreted as Odin from Gamle Lejre in Denmark, is depicted as wearing a female dress, marking it as a manifestation of the queerness of Odin, as can be argued from his contradictory nature in many mythos stories, or as a manifestation of a female depicted in a seat of power, further reinforcing the break from the innanstokks narrative.5 These pictorial finds continue to show gender as a more complex research point than the previously established binary divide between domicile confined women and farmer/warrior archetypal males.

These findings continue to bring nuance, fluidity and complexity to the discussion of past social norms, just as our modern expressions of gender should be embraced and discussed with open mindedness and nuance in the conversations of today.

Sources:

  • 1  “Vatnsdøla Saga.” In Norrøn Saga, pp. 255-336. vol. II. Aschehoug, Oslo, 1989.
  • 1 Njålssoga. New and complete edition by Jan Ragnar Hagland ed. Verdensbiblioteket bok nr. 32. De norske bokklubbene, Oslo, 2007.
  • 1  “Soga om fosterbrørne.” In Islendingesagaene, edited by J. G. Jørgensen and J. R. Hagland, pp. 327-329. vol. II. V vols. Saga Forlag, Reykjavik, 2014.
  • 1 “Tåtten om Ravn Gudrunsson.” In Islendingesagaene, edited by J. G. Jørgensen and J. R. Hagland. pp. 459 vol. V. Saga Forlag, Reykjavik, 2014.
  • 2 Clunies Ross, Margaret. “Reading Þrymskviða.” The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology, edited by Paul Acher and Carolyne Larrington. Routledge, New York, 2002.
  • 3 Danielsson, Ing-Marie Back. “Masking Moments: The Transitions of Bodies and Beings in Late Iron Age Scandinavia.” PhD, Stockholms universitet, Stockholm, 2007.
  • 4 Snødal, Porgrunnr. “Ailikn’s Wagon and Odin’s Warriors: The Pictures on the Gotlandic Ardre Monuments.” In The Viking Age: Ireland and the West, edited by J. Sheehan and D. Ó.nCorráin, pp. 446. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010.
  • 5 Pedersen, Unn. “Vikingtidskvinner i maktens innerste sirkel.” In Dronningen i vikingtid og middelalder, edited by N. Løkka and K. Kjesrud, pp. 116. Spartacus, Oslo, 2017.

~Lord Ragnall Cennétig (he/him)

June 7- Lisbetha Olsdotter

There are many cases throughout history where women have disguised themselves in mens’ clothes in order to do jobs reserved for men. We have fewer examples of those women going on to marry another woman, which brings us to the unusual case of Lisbetha Olofsdotter.

Sources record her name differently: Elisabeth, Lisbetha, or Lisabetha, with Olsdotter or Olofsdotter for the patronymic, but they all agree on the essential details of her story. She was married to the local tailor and had children with him, but left because he was abusive and adulterous. Instead of staying and suffering through the situation, as many women over the centuries have felt compelled to do in such situations, she donned men’s clothing and sought work on a farm.

After 4 years of working on the farm, her master’s brother coerced her into military conscription, threatening to reveal her true identity if she did not. This gained the brother a finder’s fee for getting her to enlist, though it also enriched Lisabetha to the tune of 300 daler in soldier’s wages, a not insignificant sum. To maintain her secret, she made every attempt to appear the soldier, attending every military gathering and even devising a way to urinate while standing like the rest of the men through the use of a horn inserted into her trousers.

While enlisted, Lisbetha married the maid Kjerstin Ersdotter, who, along with the priest and other locals in attendance, appears to have been ignorant of Lisbetha’s true identity. It was, in fact, Kjerstin who reported Lisbetha to the authorities after having been rebuffed at her attempts to consummate their marriage, maintaining that she had been deceived.

In the end, Lisbetha Olsdotter was found guilty by the court, primarily, it seems, for fraud. While part of that centers around her “fooling” Kjerstin into marriage and claiming a soldier’s job (with the court claiming “she allowed herself to be hired for a service she could not perform,” and interesting turn of responsibility in that phrasing) there seems to have been grave concern over her attire. Lisbetha’s choice to dress as a man was thought to be an affront to god and the Bible, an “abomination,” to use the phrasing of the profoundly religious Lutherans in control of Sweden at the time. To make an example of what happens to cross-dressers, Lisbetha was sentenced to death, ordered to wear the clothes of a man and the headdress of a woman when her sentence was carried out. Her public execution, in 1679, was a public decapitation, designed to instill fear in others who would dare to defy gender norms. 

Sources:

  • Fur, Gunlog. “Reading Margins: Colonial Encounters in Sápmi and Lenapehoking in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” Feminist Studies, Fall 2006, vol. 32, no. 3, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20459102
  • Liliequist, Jonas. “Elisabeth (Lisbetha) Olofsdotter.” Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon, 8 March 2018, https://www.skbl.se/en/article/ElisabethLisbethaOlofsdotter

~Maistresse Mariette de Bretagne (she/her)

June 6- The Muxes of Oaxaca

The Muxes (pronounced mu-shay) are a recognized third gender among the Zapotec people in Oaxaca, Mexico. Their origins are debated, with some suggesting they stem from the ancient Zapotec culture due to Zapotec’s genderless language. Indigenous communities worldwide often acknowledge multiple genders, attributing unique social roles and sometimes supernatural powers to individuals identifying as a third gender. European influence and westernized ideologies have diminished these traditions, but among the Zapotec, Muxes are integral to cultural identity and tradition. The term ‘Muxe’ derives from the Spanish word ‘mujer’ for ‘woman’, but the phenomenon predates Spanish colonization, reflecting a broader Mesoamerican acceptance of diverse gender identities. 

In Juchitan, Oaxaca, a legend attributes the creation of Muxes to the patron saint of the city, San Vincente Ferrer, who inadvertently spilled a mixture of male and female seeds, leading to the emergence of Muxes predominantly in this region. Despite external influences, Juchitan has maintained its cultural heritage by blending Spanish colonialism with Zapotec traditions, showcasing the resilience of indigenous identity in the face of historical change.

In Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a small town in Oaxaca, the Muxes hold a significant place in social organization and local tradition. Neither strictly male nor female, Muxes identify with femininity and often dress in traditional female attire without necessarily seeking transgender identity. They self-identify and are recognized as a distinct third gender, adopting characteristics of both male and female roles within Zapotec society. Muxes challenge conventional notions of gender, sexuality, and the binary system by openly embracing feminine roles and attire while being fully integrated into the Zapotec community. Despite their distinct gender identity, Muxes do not conform to Western gay/straight binaries in their choice of sexual partners. Each Muxe selects their own pronouns, reflecting the community’s view that being Muxe is not a choice but an inherent aspect of identity.

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~Lady Aisha bint Allan (they/them)

June 5- The Sacred Band of Thebes

There are few bonds stronger than those formed in battle amongst brothers in arms, to raise one’s shield to not only protect oneself but also the soldier standing at their side. It was the Spartans who said “This is my shield. I bear it before me into battle, but it is not mine alone. It protects my brother on my left. It protects my city. I will never let my brother out of its shadow, nor my city out of its shelter. I will die with my shield before me facing the enemy.” 

However, there is one bond that is said to be stronger than those between brothers in arms: the bond between two lovers that binds them to their souls. At least, this is what was believed by Gorgidas who created an elite fighting unit of Ancient Greece known as the Sacred Band of Thebes. As Plato stated in Symposium, ”And if there were only some way of contriving that a state or an army should be made up of lovers and their beloved, they would be the very best governors of their own city, abstaining from all dishonour, and emulating one another in honour; and when fighting at each other’s side, although a mere handful, they would overcome the world. For what lover would not choose rather to be seen by all mankind than by his beloved, either when abandoning his post or throwing away his arms? He would be ready to die a thousand deaths rather than endure this. Or who would desert his beloved or fail him in the hour of danger?”

This unit was composed of 150 pairs of male lovers, consisting of an older soldier known as “erastes” (meaning lover) who would have been around 30 years old or older and a younger “eromenes” (meaning beloved) who was about 20 years old and beginning their military career. The older would serve as a mentor and teacher to their younger companion, teaching them in not only combat but also philosophy, poetry, politics, and dance. The sanctity of the bond was said to be based on the fact that both swore their oaths at the shrine of Iolaus, the male lover of Heracles. Stories from Greek mythology are filled with stories of pairs of lovers such as these including Heracles and Iolaus, Achilles and Patroclus, and many others. These couples were said to have fought in the name of Eros, son of Aphrodite and god of love. While it was not unusual in Ancient Greece for two soldiers to become lovers, this unit comprised entirely of couples was something not seen before.

The Sacred Band acted as a primary attack unit in the 4th century BCE and was so strong that it was considered to be the driving force in ending Spartan dominance. In 378 BCE, King Agesilaus II of Sparta sent his armies to Boetia but was pushed back by the Band with the Athenians as allies. At the battle of Tegyra, the Band plus a unit of 200 calvary stood against 1,000-1,800 Spartan hoplites and were able to defeat them with minimal casualties. According to Plutarch, “This battle first taught the other Greeks also that it was not the Eurotas, nor the region between Babyce and Cnacion [Sparta] which alone produced warlike fighting men, but that wheresoever young men are prone to be ashamed of baseness and courageous in a noble cause, shunning disgrace more than danger, these are most formidable to their foes.” 

While this was not the only battle that the Sacred Band went on to win, this marked one of their greatest military achievements until their destruction at the hands of Phillip II of Macedon in 338 BCE who sent an army of over 30,000 led by his son, Alexander, to destroy Thebes and their allies. When the mass grave of The Sacred Band of Thebes was discovered in the 19th century, it became very apparent that full annihilation of the unit was the goal and yet several pairs of corpses remained with arms linked together, even in death.

Sources:

  • Crompton, Louis. Homosexuality and Civilization. Harvard University Press, 2003.
  • DeVoto, James G. “The Theban Sacred Band.” The Ancient World 23, 2021, pp. 3-19.
  • Flynn, James. “Lovers and Soldiers.” Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities, 22 June 2021, https://www.neh.gov/article/lovers-and-soldiers
  • -Plato. Symposium. Translated by Benjamin Jowett, 1939.

~Don Ciaran ua Meic Thire (he/him)

June 4- The Bitten Peach

The original EK Pride Project highlighted the story of “The Cut Sleeve,” one of the most notable tales of queer love from China during the medieval period. The other tale is “The Bitten Peach.” Though time has mixed truth and fantasy, the romance of the life of Duke Ling of Wei and his lover Mizi Xia has made its mark on history. 

Duke Ling of Wei was born to Duke Xiang and his favorite concubine around 543 BCE. Though he was the second son of Duke Xiang, oracles of powerful houses were consulted after his father’s passing and it was decided that Yuan, the name he was given at birth, would be Duke. His life as Duke was filled with 42 years of turmoil. In 522, he was forced to flee the city of Siniao due to rebellion caused by his older brother’s mistreatment of royal advisors. By his own admission, he was not a very good ruler. His wife, Lady Nanzi, handled government affairs with his blessing. No matter his affections for his wife, his dedication was to his lover, though it became a cautionary tale in the end.

Not much is known about his lover, Mizi Xia, beyond his appearance in the writing of Han Fei. Mizi Xia was described as being beautiful. It is this beauty that is rumored to have been the start of the relationship between him and Duke Ling.

The bitten peach is the most romanticized of Duke Ling’s interactions with Mizi Xia. One day while strolling through the orchard, Mizi Xia bit into a peach and after tasting how good it was he offered the bitten peach to his lover. According to the “Passions of the Cut Sleeve,” Duke Ling exclaimed, “How sincere is your love for me! … You forgot your own appetite and think only of giving me good things to eat!” 

Their love was documented as crossing the boundary of their stations. In one instance, Mizi Xia learned his mother was ill and immediately stole one of the royal carriages by forging the Duke’s permission. Upon learning of the theft, Duke Ling could only praise the dedication of Mizi Xia to his family and determined that there would be no punishment. If another person, no matter their station, had done the same, history says that they would have had their feet removed. 

Unfortunately, their love was not meant to last. As Mizi Xia aged and he was no longer in Duke Ling’s favor, he was accused of committing an unspecified crime. Duke Ling was quoted as saying “”After all, he once stole my carriage, and another time he gave me a half-eaten peach to eat!” Nothing is known of what happened to Mizi Xia after he was cast out. The Duke died while still in power and was succeeded by his grandson.

Through the writings of Han Fei, the phrases ‘bitten peach’ and ‘Mizi Xia’ became synonymous with homosexuality in Ancient China.

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~Lady Bak Nabiya (she/her)

June 3- Julie d’Aubigny

Julie d’Aubigny, famously known as La Maupin, lived a remarkable and controversial life during late 17th and early 18th century France. Born around 1670 in Paris, she was raised by her father, Gaston, who passed on his swordsmanship skills along with his drinking and gambling vices. She received an education typically reserved for boys of the time, excelling in academic subjects and fencing, becoming known as one of the best fencers of her time. Starting her career as a singer at Marseille Opéra, Julie’s talent on stage garnered admiration, but her personal life was equally dramatic. When she fell in love with a young woman whose family sent her to a convent to avoid their  relationship, Julie followed her lover to the convent, and together they escaped in a daring plot involving a staged fire and a deceased nun’s body.

After returning to Paris, Julie’s career soared to new heights as she became a member of the prestigious Opéra. However, her unconventional behavior offstage often drew as much attention as her performances. She scandalized Parisian society by attending a court ball in men’s attire and engaging in a duel with three noblemen who were vying for the attention of a woman she kissed. Remarkably, she emerged victorious in all three duels, cementing her reputation as a formidable swordswoman. Despite her tumultuous personal life, Julie’s talent as an opera singer was undeniable. She collaborated with leading composers of her time, bringing roles to life with her unparalleled vocal range and dramatic flair. Her contributions to French opera were significant, pioneering new vocal techniques and captivating audiences with her performances.

Julie navigated relationships with both men and women in her lifetime, including a passionate liaison with Madame la Marquise de Florensac, renowned for her beauty and influence. Their love affair, characterized by passion and scandal, epitomized the complexities of romantic relationships of that era. Eventually, Julie’s audacious behavior eventually led to her downfall. Her scandals and controversies overshadowed her artistic achievements, prompting her to retreat from the limelight. Yet, her legacy endures as a symbol of defiance against societal norms, challenging gender roles and sexual identity in an era marked by rigid conventions. Her legacy as a bisexual, cross-dressing swordswoman and talented opera singer continues to captivate audiences, reflecting the complexities of gender roles and sexual identity in 17th-century France.

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~ Lady Aisha bint Allan (they/them)

June 2- Gaius Julius Caesar

When one hears the name Gaius Julius Caesar, they likely think of his assassination in 44 BCE when 60 Roman senators stabbed him 23 times. Maybe they think of his accomplishments as a general in the Gallic Wars and his famous quote “Veni, vidi, vici.” Today, Caesar is viewed as a middle-aged man with a bald spot, known for his sternness and cunning, but the Caesar of Ancient Rome was very different. When he was younger, Caesar was seen as very pretty, dressing in more effeminate clothing, often playing with his hair, traits that his political opponents claimed made him ill-suited for politics. Curio, one of Caesar’s political opponents, described him as “every woman’s man and every man’s woman,” implying that he was well liked by women and assumed a submissive role towards men.

In Rome, it was not only considered socially acceptable for men to be sexually promiscuous even when married, it was all but expected of higher-class individuals. Heterosexuality was not the standard nor were there words for hetero, homo or bisexuality as the Romans, and the Greeks before them, did not define sexual relationships by the gender of the partner but in terms of being in the “dominant” or “submissive” role. To this end, most free Roman men were expected to take both male and female lovers before they married. Caesar himself not only pursued strangers but also the wives of his political rivals. His promiscuity and lack of concern for the marital status of his partners earned him the nickname “moechus calvus,” which translates to the “bald adulterer.”

While many records regarding Caesar may have been questionable in their accuracy due to political motives and hearsay, the volume of such accounts makes it hard to believe that at least some were not true. For example, Julius Caesar spent several years from age 20 in the kingdom of Bithynia, trying to convince King Nicomedes IV to provide a fleet. He stayed well after this mission was complete and was rumored to be having a sexual relationship with the King. While Caesar denied that anything occurred between himself and Nicomedes, he was given the epithet “Queen of Bithynia” and was noted in a song by Caesar’s men following their triumph over Gaul. According to Suetonius’ biography of Julius Caesar, one line was “Gallias Caesar subegit, Nicomedes Caesarem,” or in English, “Caesar conquered Gaul, Nicomedes conquered Caesar.” Cicero, a philosopher and politician- albeit one who often openly opposed Caesar- at one point wrote “the virginity of the one sprung from Venus [Caesar, whose family was believed to be able to track their ancestry through the demigod Aeneas, son of Venus) was lost in Bithynia.” 

While rising politically, rumors circulated that Caesar adopted his nephew, Octavian (later known as Augustus) as his heir due to a sexual relationship the two shared. Once again, these could have just been rumors to slander Caesar and destroy his reputation, but the sheer quantity of them in different forms combined with the socially accepted default of bisexuality in ancient Rome lead to the understanding that Julius Caesar had both male and female partners throughout his life. This, combined with the fact that several of these stories come not from political rivals but from those who supported Caesar himself, adds to the validity of these in ways that describe his actions in neutral or positive lights.

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~Don Ciaran ua Meic Thire (he/him) 

June 1- We’re Still Here

Happy Pride, East Kingdom!

Two years ago, a team of a dozen SCAdians came together and shared their research as a way to commemorate queer people throughout history. The original “We’ve Always Been Here” project published a new post every day in the month of June, covering figures from across different time periods and cultures, making a clear and unambiguous statement that LGTBQ+ people have existed throughout human history.

To celebrate Pride month, and in honor of all the people in the queer community past and present, we’re back this year with a new series of posts from queer history every day this month. Contributors will be sharing information about people from the queer community from a wide range of times, places, and circumstances, reminding us every day that queer people were very much a part of the period we re-create in these current Middle Ages. Their lives and stories are part of our history, they deserve to be remembered, and that is exactly what we will be doing in this space for the rest of the month. We hope you join us in this journey.

~Maistresse Mariette de Bretagne (she/her)
Deputy Minister of Arts & Sciences for Education

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